THE ASIAN INDEPENDENT UK
Dr. Ramjilal, (Social Scientist, Former Principal, Dyal Singh College, Karnal – Haryana India)
Email—[email protected]
Abstract
The Vedic period is the period of ancient Indian culture and civilisation. The Vedic period is divided into two parts -Rigvedic period (1500-1000 BC) and Late Vedic period (1000-600 BC) (https://en.wikipedia.org/
Expansion
Respect as Ardhangini and Sahadharmini
It is described in Vedic literature that a husband is incomplete without his wife. That is why the wife is called ‘Ardhangini and Sahadharmini’. In the ancient epics of India–Ramayana and Mahabharata—women are considered the basic source of religion, happiness, and prosperity. Women were respected as Ardhangini. According to the Puranas, a man is incomplete without his wife. In the Puranas, every god is shown to be associated with his wife/woman, like Vishnu-Lakshmi and Shiva-Parvati. Sita-Ram and Radha-Krishna, or giving the wife or woman precedence by addressing her name before the man’s, were prevalent in the Ramayana and Mahabharata eras. Such instances do not exist, even in the current modern era. It is evident that women in ancient Indian society were valued.
The veneration of women as goddesses
According to Vedic culture, where women are worshipped, gods reside there (Yatra naryastu pujyante ramante tatra devataa). As far as worship of women as goddesses is concerned, there are temples of goddesses like Maa Durga, Maa Vaishno Devi, Maa Dhari Devi, Maa Naina Devi, Jwala Devi, Shitala Devi, Chamunda Devi, Chintapurni Devi, Brajeshwari Devi, Baglamukhi Devi, Mansa Devi, Annapurna Devi, Kali Mata (Kolkata), Kumari Ammandevi (South India), Udayanoor Devi (South India), Meenakshi Temple (Madurai), and Ayyappa Temple (Sabarimala-Kerala), etc. Women are worshipped and respected as goddesses all over India.
In Indian culture, three goddesses are worshipped: Saraswati (goddess of knowledge), Lakshmi (goddess of wealth), and Durga (goddess of power). These three goddesses were given more respect than their husbands – Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesh. Women do not get this kind of respect in Western civilisation or any other civilisation of the world even today. In today’s time, if a woman is very powerful, she is called ‘Durga’. For example, due to the creation of Bangladesh in the Indo-Pakistani War (1971),the then Prime Minister Mrs. Indira Gandhi was respectfully addressed as ‘Durga’ by Bharatiya Jana Sangh (now BJP) leader Atal Bihari Vajpayee.
Right to get education
Reading through the ancient civilisation’s history reveals that girls were free to receive an education during that era. Girls may be “brahmacharini,” as defined by the Vedas and Upanishads; “brahmacharini” refers to an educated person. (Brahmacharyaen Kanya Yuvanam Vindate Patim) “A young girl who graduates from celibacy gets a suitable husband,” according to the Atharvaveda. This idea is gaining traction in the modern era: girls who become more educated will marry more educated young men. Mata Shatru: Pita Vairi Yen Balo Na Pathit, a verse from Chanakya Niti’s second chapter, claims that parents who fail to educate their children are enemies. That is, children have a right to an education, and parents have a responsibility to educate their children. Thus, it is evident that the education of both boys and girls was a priority in ancient India.
According to the famous scholar Altekar, women were academically strong due to receiving higher education. Their intellectual and educational status was very high. According to him, the hymns of the Rigveda were composed by 378 rishis (sages) and 29 female rishis (female scholars). The Rigveda is the most important text of ancient India. This text addresses the intellectual, spiritual, educational, and social problems of the time. Rishika was the title given to women during the Rig-Veda era. Rishika (sages or poets) was the term used to refer to female Rishis. Ancient Rishikas such as Romasha, Lopamudra, Apala, Kadru, Vishwavara, Ghosha, Juhu, Vagambarini, Paulomi, Yami, Indrani, Savitri, Devayani, Nodha, Akrishtabhasha, Sikatanvari, Gaupayana, and others are noteworthy.
Right to freely participate in debates with Rishis
Women (Rishikas) were allowed to freely participate in debates with male Rishis on various subjects—cultural, educational, spiritual, etc. In this regard, it is accurate to describe the Rishikas as Maitreyi, Sulabha, Gargi, Lopamudra, Kashana, Sikata, Vak, etc. Yagyavalkya had two wives—Maitreyi and Katyayani. Katyayani used to run the household, while Maitreyi liked to sit and discuss with her husband. Female Rishikas used to participate in debates on philosophical topics. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad’s sixth and eighth Brahman describe Gargi (Gargi Vachaknavi) as a great Rishika who was both knowledgeable about the Vedas and a repository of wisdom. The court of King Janak used to host a learnt assembly (Brahmayagya) where Gargi and Yagyavalkya would engage in philosophical discussions. Lilavati was a renowned mathematician in addition to this. These women were referred to as “Brahmavaadini” because they attained the pinnacle of intellectual and spiritual knowledge. Teachers were politely referred to as “Upadhyaya” if they were single and “Upadhyayani” if they were married. ‘Sadyowada’ was the general category of women. In the past general category, women sought education in order to better themselves. In this context, historian Altekar claims that child marriage was not common in Vedic society. Sadyovdha once studied exclusively for marriage and family well-being.
During the Vedic era, Brahmavadinis and women received education. Consequently, these women were Sanyasinis, philosophers, poets, preachers, and Rishis. Because they were highly educated intellectuals, female Rishikas were treated on an equal footing with male Rishis in the society. Panini claims that during the Vedic era, dorms for female students were also available. Female teachers had authority over the administration of these hostels. The Vedic era also saw a lot of co-education. Numerous examples of women being commended for their merits can be found in Vedic literature.
In addition to being mistresses and housekeepers, women in the Rig-Veda era were also free to engage in other activities such as gymnastics, archery, horseback riding, combat, public decision-making, and choosing male partners.
Freedom to marry as per one’s choice—Swayamvara or Gandharva marriage
In the Vedic era, the normal marriage age for girls was 15 or 16 years. The main duty assigned to the girls was to work for the welfare of their family. According to the Rigvedic verses, young women had the right to choose their life partner. In other words, it is called Swayamvara or Gandharva marriage. Young women were not forced to marry against their will. As a result, a large number of young women remained unmarried throughout their lives and lived with their parents; these were called ‘amajuh’. Child marriage is not mentioned in ancient literature. However, widow remarriage was socially recognised. In the Rigvedic civilisation (Vatsyayana’s Kamasutra), sex drive or sex satisfaction was considered the highest level of pleasure. Sex workers (prostitutes) enjoyed social recognition and acceptance. Prostitutes were a source of beauty, intelligence, dance, attraction, and sensuality and were sexually passionate. In the history of the contemporary Lichchhavi Republic of Gautam Buddha, King Bimbisara and King Ajatashatru from the 6th century to the 5th century BC, the most youthful and beautiful was Amrapali.
( Acharya Chatursen Shastri’s Vaishali ki Nagarvadhu (1948-49).
According to the Mahaparinirvana Sutra (Buddhist text), Nagarvadhu was not only an entertainer, but kings, princes, and wealthy people also had relations with her; that is, she was a royal prostitute
(https://en.wikipedia.org/
Later, influenced by Mahatma Buddha, Amrapali took sanyaas and adopted Buddhism. This makes it clear that in Buddhism too, women were respected as much as men.
The status of women deteriorated during the Ramayana and Mahabharata period. For example, the Pandavas gambled away Draupadi’s honor. Similarly, according to the Ramayana, the Laxman Rekha was drawn by Sita’s brother-in-law, Laxman.
Monogamy, Polygamy and Polyandry: Society obsessed with son-obsession – A Paradox
Among the common people, monogamy was the practice, while among the upper class, polygamy was prevalent. It is a fact that Sage Maitreyi was a famous woman of the late Vedic period ,and was one of the wives of Yagyavalkya. The Aitereya Brahman also describes polygamy for men and monogamy for women. It further states that one husband is enough for a woman. Women were under the complete control and command of men. According to the Shatapath Brahman, it is the duty of a woman to keep her husband happy and give birth to a’son’. In the Shatapath Brahman, it is mentioned in many verses that the ‘desire for a son’ is more relevant. It is clear that the ancient Indian society was ‘obsessed with son-obsession’, and even at that time, a girl child was considered ‘unwanted’. This is a great contradiction and continues even today. Another contradiction has been observed in ancient India regarding women. On the one hand, there are examples of monogamy (Lord Ramchandra) and polygamy (King Dasharath), and on the other hand, polyandry (Draupadi) is found.
Marital relations between dynasties
In ancient times, there were marital relations between dynasties. As per the Shrimad Bhagwat Mahapuran, for instance, Duryodhana and Shri Krishna were each other’s Samdhi due to the marriage of Duryodhana’s daughter Lakshmana and Shri Krishna’s son Samb, who was the son of another queen, Jamvanti. In addition, Shri Krishna’s sister Subhadra was married to Arjun, making them brothers-in-law. Arjun was the son of Shri Krishna’s aunt Kunti. Dynasties kept getting married to one another in later times.
The property right to inherit
In India, women’s property rights have a long history that goes back thousands of years. Sons and daughters have equal rights to ancestral property, according to ancient Vedic literature, which uses the term “dayad” to refer to property rights. About 3100 years ago, the jurist Vigyaneshwar (1070–1000 BC) wrote about “Stri Dhan,” which held that a woman’s portion of the money she received as a gift or cash during a marriage was her property.
There is disagreement among ancient jurists about who should inherit property; according to Yagyavalkya, the widowed wife, son, and daughter should all have property rights, while Vishnu and Narada have argued for granting unmarried daughters the right to inherit ancestral property.
According to Manusmriti, if there is no male heir, widows, daughters, and mothers will receive property rights as heirs. The concepts presented in Manusmriti have proven extremely detrimental in distorting women’s rights, and the mindset of society remains the same even today, despite laws and court rulings. Approximately 2400 years ago, women were totally denied property rights and had only Stridhan because of patriarchal power.
Three Primary Ideologies: Mitakshara, Dayabhaga, and Marumakkatam’s Law
In ancient times, there were three main ideologies in India regarding inheritance: Mitakshara, Dayabhaga and Marumakkatam laws. Mitakshara ideology was recognised in the whole of India, except Bengal, Assam, and Eastern India. This ideology had four branches: Dravidian, Maithili, Banaras, and Maharashtra. According to Mitakshara ideology, women are not allowed to be coparceners, and the widow of a coparcener does not have the right to divide the property against the coparcener brother. A woman has the right to divide the property of her husband or sons.
According to Dayabhaga ideology, if there is no male heir, then the widow has the right to divide the property, and she has the full right to her husband’s share. In this regard, Mitakshara ideology is harmful for women’s property rights.
The “Marumakkatam” law, which maintains that succession and inheritance are based on female lineage, was first applied by matriarchal families in South and Northeast India, whose inheritance laws were entirely different from those of patriarchal families. This gave the daughter the right to the property, while the son did not.
Buddhism and Jainism: Participation of Women
In Vedic and post-Vedic culture, having a son is almost mandatory for attaining salvation. But in Buddhism, having a son is not necessary for attaining salvation. According to Mahatma Buddha, daughters are better than sons. Women play an important role in the family in Buddhism, just as they do in Vedic and post-Vedic cultures. Jain religious texts state that marriage should occur when a person is young because it is considered unlucky to marry later in life. Although widow remarriage was accepted in Jainism, it was not regarded as honourable. Women’s involvement in religious rituals has been documented in Buddhism and Jainism, just like in Vedic and post-Vedic cultures. This explains why Buddhist nuns were women. The first female Buddhist to be fully initiated was Maha Prajapati, who was the foster mother and stepmother of Mahatma Buddha. An essential component of the Jain monastic tradition in the Digambara and Shvetambara sects of Jainism are Jain nuns, Aryikas, and Sadhvis; they help to uphold Jain rituals, customs, and moral standards.
Codification of Women’s Rights in Manusmriti: Untimely in the Current Context
Manusmriti is an ancient Smriti text of Sanatana Dharma or Manava Dharmashastra. Manusmriti, the codification of women’s rights, presents an inconsistent and internally contradictory view.
1. According to Manusmriti, on one hand, a marriage cannot be dissolved by either a woman or a man (Shloka 8.101-8.102) while on the other hand, a man or a woman has the right to dissolve a fraudulent or abusive marriage or to remarry. When a woman’s husband disappears or deserts her, she can remarry (Shloka 9.72-9.81).
2. Manu Smriti advocates the purity of widowed women (Shloka 5.158-5.160) and supports varnaism and casteism because women should marry only within their varna, social class (jati) i.e. a woman cannot marry anyone outside her social class (Shloka 3.13-3.14). In other words, Chanakya is against inter-caste and inter-class marriages.
3. On the one hand, “a woman should never try to live independently” (Shloka 5.148.) Elaborating on this, Manu Smriti states that as a girl, she should obey her father and seek his protection; as a young woman, her husband and as a widow her son; and a woman should always worship her husband as God, and a man should consider his wife as an incarnation of Goddess (Shloka 2.67-2.69 and 5.148-5.155), while on the other hand it emphasises on respecting women and says that “where women are respected, the gods are pleased” (Shlokas 3.55-3.56)
4. Customs regarding women in Manusmriti: Manusmriti prohibits marriages outside one’s varna (caste), such as between a Brahmin man and a Shudra woman, a widow becoming pregnant by a man she is not married to (Shlokas 9.149-9.157), marriages where a woman elopes with her lover (Shlokas 9.57-9.62), etc. The right to inheritance of property, and the legal rights of children born in this way (Shlokas 9.143-9.157). When a married woman becomes pregnant by a man other than her husband, it is a decision that is made by the husband (Shlokas 8.31-8.56).
Right to Property
According to Manusmriti, a woman can have six different kinds of property rights: those that she inherited from her deceased family members; those that she eloped with or was abducted; those that she received as a token of love prior to marriage; those that her husband gave her after marriage; and those that she received as a gift from her biological family (Shlokas 9.192–9.200)
Women in India have many rights under the Constitution and laws, and if these rights are denied to them, they have the right to petition the court. Therefore, the Manuvadi code of conduct cannot be supported in the current context, as women are not confined to four walls but work alongside men in every aspect of life.
Ramcharitmanas: An end to the controversy surrounding Dalits and women
In the epic Ramcharitmanas, Tulsidas’s chaupaiyas demonstrate anti-women and anti-Dalit mentality. Additionally, the Brahmin is accused of dividing society by asserting his superiority over the Dalit. While Tulsidas advocates for women’s freedom and respect through the chaupaiyas, he also writes that when women become independent, they go astray, and he talks about punishing them. The word Tadna has been interpreted differently by various scholars; on the one hand, “Taadna” means to punish, but in the 1953 edition of Ramcharitmanas, the word “Dand” has been used in place of “Taadna”. (Ramcharitmanas: Gorakhpur, Geeta Press edition, 1953)
But after the implementation of the Indian Constitution in 1950, all Indians have the right to equality and freedom. As a result, this traditional concept is not valid. This is the reason why the official change has been made to the quatrain, and it is as follows: “Dhol, Ganwar, Shudra, and Stree, Ye Sab Shiksha Ke Adhikari Hain” (Ramcharitmanas: Gorakhpur, Geeta Press, edition 2002). As a result, the controversy against women and Dalits came to a complete halt. It is not the first time, that this official change has been made in a Hindu text. Even before this, a verse in the Hindu text Bhagavad Gita *(‘Brahman Kshatriya Vishram Shudranan Cha Parantap. ‘Karmani Pravibhktani Svabhavaprabhavairgunah’ (II.18.41) in the English translation and commentary, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1948), has changed: (O Arjuna, Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya, and the actions of the Shudras are distinguished in accordance with the qualities born of their own nature.’ Of Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas, as also the Sudras, O Arjuna, the activities are distinguished in accordance with the qualities born of their own nature. In this English translation, emphasis has been laid on natural qualities rather than on birth-based caste and varna. Although changes have been made to the Chaupai of Ramcharitmanas and the verses of Geeta, there is still no change in the traditional viewpoint of the public
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Ordinary Women: Three Functions
During the Vedic, post-Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain periods, ordinary women occupied a special place in families and served three purposes: caring for the family, raising animals, and farming. These three roles are still carried out by rural women today.
Anti-women practices and incidents
According to Altekar, the Vedic age was a “golden age” from the point of view of Indian women because they received education and knowledge in various fields. However, many historians do not agree with this hypothesis because they believe that the golden age must have been for women of high status, not for women of the general class. Historians believe that the Rigvedic society was patriarchal and patrilineal. A major change took place.
There are also descriptions of extremely anti-women practices and incidents in ancient times. The practice of Niyog (Epic Mahabharata, Manusmriti and the story of sage Dirdhatamasa), the practice of polygamy and polyandry (Epic Valmiki Ramayana and Mahabharat), abandonment of newborn daughter due to love for son and anti-daughter mentality (Sitaji found in a pitcher and Amrapali found under the shade of a mango tree), kidnapping of young women for marriage (Asur Vivah), Pandavas betting Draupadi in gambling, Duryodhan disrobing Draupadi in a public gathering (Epic Mahabharata) and drawing Lakshman Rekha to ban Sitaji, kidnapping of Sitaji by Ravana in the guise of a hermit and cutting off the nose and ears of Surpanakha by Lakshman, Agni Pariksha of Sitaji and the practice of maid (Epic Valmiki Ramayana), etc. are main examples There was no prevalence of beggars, agricultural slaves, untouchability, Sati Pratha, Parda Pratha, or child marriage.
The status of women deteriorated drastically in the medieval period. The major traditions imposed on women during this period included Parda Pratha, child marriage, no widow remarriage, Sati Pratha, Devdasi Pratha and Jauhar Pratha. There was an unprecedented increase in the incidents of sexual harassment, domestic violence, and female infanticide against women. As a result, the lives of women were confined to the four walls of the house.
Women now enjoy a wide range of rights because of the Indian Constitution, its amendments, laws, and court decisions. They are represented in the political system in positions ranging from the president of India to the village sarpanch. Nevertheless, women’s progress is hampered by innumerable factors.
