Feminism in literature: An interesting comparative study of fifteen writers

(Asian Independent)-

– Dr. Ramjilal

(The following article by Dr. Ramjilal has been written as a foreword to the book Feministic Ethos in Pre-Independence and Post-Independence Indian Literature: A Comprehensive Study by Dinesh Kumar. Before making his analytic observations on the book Dr. Ramjilal has given a historical account of the idea of feminism in India from ancient to the modern times. He has also introduced the author of the book as follows in the beginning of the foreword:

It gives me immense pleasure to write the foreword of the book, ‘Feministic Ethos in Pre-Independence and Post-Independence Indian Literature: A Comprehensive Study’ inked by Mr. Dinesh Kumar, Assistant Professor of English, Dyal Singh College, Karnal. Mr. Dinesh Kumar has been working as an assistant professor of English at Dyal Singh College, Karnal for the last 16 years. He is a young and energetic scholar of rare intellectual caliber. He is a very hard working young man of English literature. He is actively participating in seminars, webinars and conferences at National and international level. He is the sole of two more books-Voice in Literature (ISBN NO. 978-93-87276-79-6), and George Orwell’s Social Vision: A Critical Study (ISBN NO. 978-620-3-921908). He has also edited two books-English Language as Mediator of Human-Machine Communication (ISBN NO. 978-81-948672-1-0), by Natalia Lazebna, Associate Professor, Zaporizhzhia Polytechnic National University, Ukraine, and a poetry book, Drops of Intensity by an Italian poet, Gerlinde Staffler.)

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Generally, the term ‘feminism’ is used to describe a social, political, cultural and economic movement aimed at establishing gender, justice, equality and legal rights and protection for the vulnerable section of society. Feminists around the world radically and strongly raise voice(s) and question against all kinds of oppression and injustice. They have attempted to change and alter the pervasive predominant perspectives towards stereotype traditions and boundless modernity in order to create a healthy egalitarian and progressive environment for the betterment and holistic growth of men and women together.

Therefore, it is not only significant, but also crucial to engage with such a valuable prospective to enhance the vision towards the world in which we live. Feminism as a discipline has expanded its horizon and is continuously spreading its branches in every field of knowledge that provides us an opportunity to reflect upon our issues and problems uniquely.

Feminism has found out fertile ground in higher education where it presents a wide range of interdisciplinary engagements and connectedness in between research and teaching which involve feminist perspectives in different academic disciplines such as medical science, philosophy, literature, arts, social sciences, sciences, commerce and management. Current shifts in academic patterns and education policy have affected differently to men and women, and feminism has much to contribute to understand and address gender contexts of various disciplines in colleges, universities and educational policies. In doing so, feminism makes use of a specific methodologies, pedagogies and techniques, theories and practices in order to capture the essence of the subject.

Change is the law of nature. According to this rule, there have been unprecedented changes in the socio-economic and political situation of women from ancient time to the present time. This is no exception in relation to Indian women. In ancient times, the position of women in India was almost equal to men. In the Vedic era, the status of women was equal. In ancient texts, it is mentioned that women named Maitreyi, Gargi and LeelaVati and others were great scholars and excellent orators who used to participate in debates with male scholars. The women used to enjoy equal rights. It is evident from the great writings of the ancient scholars and saints including Katyanan, Yagavalakya, Narada Muni, Varihaspati and others that daughters had ¼ right in the property of their fathers after their death. According to Yagavalakya son, daughter and widow wife should have right to property. Saints like Vishnu and Nard even pleaded that an unmarried daughter should have right in the parental property.

But, after the implementation of The Manusamriti, (500 B.C.), the situation of women began to decline as compared to men. Most of the decline began in medieval era when Muslim invaders and raiders attacked India and established their kingdom. The status of Indian women has also declined due to European marauders and propagation of Christianity.

In the ancient India, there were women rulers and commanders of the army. Magasthnese wrote in his book, Indica, the women were rulers in “Pandya Desh”. Most important women rulers and commanders of army were Prabhavati Gupta, Maharani Nayanika(Nagnika). Anuradha in SriLanka and Karama Devi in Mewat were the commanders of the army. Maharani Kripa Kamboj led her army against Sikandar in war. According to some historians, her fighting skills and strong leadership forced Sikandar to sign treaty. Maharani Dida ruled over Kashmir for 22 years. Some historians claim that the Vedic Era in Ancient India was the ‘Golden Age’ for women. The Manusamriti, The Vashishtha Samriti, The Atreya Brahamana and Chankaya’s The Aratha Shastra were dangerous for the status of women and their respect, honour and dignity.

It was propagated that women were among the physically weaker sections of society, they were considered less intelligent than men and having lesser wisdom. They were deprived of their rights which were enjoyed by them in the ancient times. These rights include the right to property, 1/4 Right in the property of her father after his death and other rights. Even the widows did not have right in the property of their husbands. Consequently, the position of women, especially, child and young widows became miserable and the life became hellish for females. The widows were subjected to a number inhumanly restrictions and false behavior codes. They were deprived of their educational and other rights also.

The Ancient Grantha, Manusamriti also divided the society in horizontal and hierarchal orders into four Varnas-Brahaman, Kashtariya, Vaishya and Shudra. These Varnas were further divided in various castes and sub-castes and gotras. As a result, there are 8 religions, large number of sects and sub-sects, 6743 castes, more than 80,000 sub-castes and about 200 ethnic groups. The position of the Shudras became miserable and consequently, the Dalit women were more exploited by their family, their caste and other castes-their exploitation was triple as compared to other caste women.

Additionally, women were confined within the four walls of houses like prisoners in the jails having no social, educational, economic and political rights. The women were completely subordinated to the hierarchical command and control of men. They were considered as to be slaves. Their role was to bear and rear children and to be at the mercy of men. The patriarchal social system became very strong and women were subjected to torture and violence.

Consequently, because of the patriarchal structure of society and predominance of men, women were suppressed, oppressed and exploited from the ‘womb to tomb’ irrespective of religion, region, caste, culture and creed. The relation between man and woman was of a ruler and the ruled, exploiter and the exploited, superior and the subordinate, master and the slave.  Due to false and pre-conceived notions and well establish traditions, rituals, customs and anti-women set of mind, the position of women has deteriorated to such an extent that they are treated as second rate members of the family.

Unfortunately, society and women have accepted this position as if it is written in their fate by the God. Although born free like men, yet the women have been chained everywhere by the male members of the family. They have no control over their body and soul. The control over women is not confined to the male members of the family, but caste and religion also restrict their freedom. The main factor of this deterioration is lack of economic power of women.

The means of production of land and other are controlled by men and the women are deprived of these. This resulted into economic dependency of women on men. As a result, from the childhood to womanhood, they are tutored and taught that men are the main source of their food, shelter and clothing. In other words, the men are raised to the level of ‘Devatas’ , ‘Anna Datas’, ‘Swamis,’ and ‘Palanhar’, and the females are completely dependent on them for their survival. This has changed the relationship and resulted into economic inequality within the family and the society. Mahatma Gandhi has most aptly emphasised that due to economic factor, the women were subordinated by men since centuries and, ultimately, women have consented to this mean mentality.

Comparing the situation of women, one can perceive a marked change in the status of females from pre-independence era to post-independence era. During the pre-independence period, due to the prevalence of male-centred society in India, the females did not enjoy a high status. They were not supposed to express their ideas and viewpoints, and their responsibilities were dedicated towards household duties. Besides that, the females of the time were the victims of some evils rampant in the society- polygamy, Sati system, child marriage and female infanticide. During the Muslim Rule in India, the situation of females further deteriorated.

The position of women in India during the Pre- Independence era was not convincing as they faced a number of problems and challenges. Due to the excessive domination of patriarchal world, they were facing a number of checks imposed upon their freedom. These include acquisition of education, employment opportunities, forced child marriage, Purdah system and Sati system. Their status during the pre-independence India was primarily dependent on their upbringing and the society in which they lived. During this time also, many females emerged as courageous, full of vitality and potential, and fought for their equality in the society.

At that time, many females contributed in the struggle for the achievement of independence against British rule. Some females belonging to lower sections and socio-economically backward sections of the society did not enjoy the equal rights and opportunities, and their living conditions were not adequate. They were totally dependent upon the male counterparts and were supposed to follow the rules, norms and policies implemented by patriarchal domination.

It happened so because of the low position of the females in the society during the pre-independence era. Various codes of conduct which prescribed different norms, behavior and traits for the women were the chief governing factors in their lives to decide their status. This period witnessed the exclusion of females from rendering in effective contribution in social, economic, educational, religious and political arenas. They were confined only to the four walls of their houses and were expected to work for the betterment and welfare of their families. With the passage of time, the efforts applied by some social reformers and social workers in the direction of women’s empowerment brought some changes in the status of females.

In the due course of time, the status of women in the society changed as there was a complete deterioration in their position during the mediaeval period. Various communities like Rajput and Muslim introduced certain systems for women like Purdah system and Jauhar.  A number of anti-women traditions were established by the patriarchal system of society to so called protection of ‘honour’ of women. These traditions were Sati System, Jauhar, Devdashi Pratha, Child marriage, Dowry etc. When the Purdah system was imposed on females, they were supposed to remain within the curtain to keep themselves covered, especially in the presence of male members.

As we find in the Jauhar system, the females were used to immolate themselves according to their “own will” for the safeguards of their ‘honour’ from aggressors. In these two systems, the liberty and equality of females in all spheres of life-social, political and cultural were restricted. The Bhakti Movement, that improved the status of women to some extent, focused primarily on magnifying the status of females in the social context. But, at the same time, the Movement was another type of ‘mental slavery’ to so called ‘Gods and Devtas’.

Besides, there were many other practices in the society which were responsible for causing unfavourable environment in the lives of women like polygamy and polyandry. In polygamy, there was the tradition of keeping more than one husband. This phenomenon was very common since ancient times. In ancient India, there are precedents of Polygamy. In the great epics, The Ramayana, King Dashratha-the father of Shri Ramchandra- ‘the great Hindu God’ had three wives-Kaushalaya, Sumithra and Kakeyi. Whereas, as we find in The Mahabharata, another great epic, the tradition of polyandry can be witnessed in case of Draupadi having five husbands-Yudhishthra, Arjuna, Bhima, Nakula and Sahadeva. At the same time, in the Mahabharta era, Shri Krishna had eight principal wives (Ashtabharya)-Rukmani of Vidharbha, Satyabhama, Jamvanti, Kalindi, Nagrajiti, Mitravinda, Bhadra of Kekeya and Lakshana of Madra.

In the Indo-Aryan society, the women of the ruling class families further deteriorated. The cutting of nose of Surpanakha (Sister of Ravana) by Laxmana, brother of Shri Ramchandra, kidnapping of Sita by Ravana, trial by ordeal of Sita by her husband, Shri RamChandra, abandonment of Sita, and exile by Shri Ramchandra, the rip-off Draupadi, dragging of Draupadi to the gathering by holding her hair by Duryodhana-these evidences prove that there was deterioration of condition of females in The Ramayana, and The Mahabharata.

In the nineteenth century, the social reformers and the activists also witnessed the serious threats when they opposed Sati system or widow immolation. According to this system, the Hindu widows were supposed to climb upon ‘the funeral pyres’ of their husbands and get burnt along with them. By doing so, it was presumed that she would attain heaven. Thus, the situation of the widows was deplorable, and they experienced maltreatment.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy, one of the leading social reformers of the age, an ambassador of women emancipation, rendered a significant contribution in the direction of improvement of females’ condition during the nineteenth century. The problem of child marriage was also a blot on the Hindu society. It was a serious problem that was the root cause of many other problems associated with females. This problem also caused lack of education as their mind was trained to perform the household activities because of the early marriage. It was because of the early marriage that there was no growth and development of children. The persistent effort made by some social reformers like Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and Keshav Chandra Sen resulted in putting some checks on this problem.

The child marriage was outlawed in 1929. In the British era, the legal minimum age of marriage for girls was 14 years and 18 years for boys. In India, the Child Marriage Act was amended in which the legal age was further increased to 15 for girls in 1949. In 1978, the minimum legal age for marriage was raised to 18 for girls and 21 years for boys. Though, the prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 was passed, yet the child marriages still continue in India.

In addition to it, the problem of widow remarriage was also a burning issue for females during the Pre-Independence era. The widows of the society were suffering from inequality and oppression due to this problem. There was a strong prohibition in the lives of the widows to attend social, religious and cultural ceremonies. Moreover, they were not free to explore their views and ideas, and were also not allowed to participate in any decision making process. In brief, they were considered as “unfortunate’ and burden on the society.

This problem was associated with ‘upper castes’ in India with conservative and orthodox outlook. They opined that the remarriage of the widows will bring guilt and dishonour on earth. The significant and vital contribution in this direction was provided by Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar. Despite the opposition of Dharam Sabha (1829), Lord Dalhousie personally finalised the Hindu Widow Remarriage Act XV of 1856.

Among the other serious problems faced by the females during this time consist of right to property, but we also come across the fact that a number of Acts were passed during the British Rule in India-Indian Right to Succession 1925, the Hindu Women Right to Property Act, 1937, and the law was enacted by for the Muslim women in 1939 according to the codes of The Shariat. In the post-independence era also, a number of laws were passed. The first Act was The Hindu Succession Act, 1956. Although it was an advancement and progressive law, yet it provided limited rights to property to daughters in parental property.

The main weaknesses of law were removed after 50 years in 2005 when The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Law was passed by the Parliament. This Act was further amended on August 11, 2020 by the Parliament of India.  In this Act, it was mandatory if father of a daughter is expired before September 9, 2005, even then the daughter will have equal right as the son has in the parental property. This was further confirmed by Supreme Court of India on August 11, 2020. But, in practice, Laws are not followed and daughters are deprived of their legal right to property.

Female infanticide was also one of the major threats for the females in the society. It was an act of killing the girl child in the womb or after she has taken birth. Girls were considered as the responsibility of parents. It was considered that girls will demand more and more and would yield no return upon investment. During the marriage time of the girls, the parents had to pay heavy dowry which was totally unbearable for the poor and marginalised families. But, killing of a girl child has been practiced by the middle-class since centuries, especially after 1986-with the introduction of ultra-sound machines.

During the British rule in India, many social activists and social reformers tried their best to bring out radical and drastic changes in the status of females. Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Jyotiba Phule, Savitri Bhi Phule and Fatima Sheikh worked tirelessly keeping the aim of women empowerment in their minds. In the field of education, the first school was opened by Peary Charan Sarkar in Barasat (a suburb of Kolkata, West-Bengal) to educate the females.

In 1847, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, in collaboration with Lord William Bentinck, was able to remove the age-old evil of sati system from the Indian society. Widows, who were living a miserable life in the social society after the death of their husbands, were allowed to marry again because of the determined and unflinching efforts of Raja Ram Mohan Roy. Pandita Ramabhai, one of the leading female social reformers, is known for her energetic and industrious to bring females on equal footing with males.

Maharani Rani Lakshmi Bai is known for her bravery who challenged the British regime with her resolute and single-minded effort to dispel the British Rule from India. Similarly, in the Muslim Community, Begum Hajrat Mahal was also a great rebellious against the British East India Company Rule in 1857. But, in spite of all these females working actively and enthusiastically, they were not treated as equal to men. The women were capable, energetic and dexterous in various arts, but were treated in as inferior and unprivileged.

Discussing the status of women in the Post-Independence period, there is surely a change in every aspect.  The Post-Independence period has provided the females with opportunity in diverse fields–education, politics and employment. There is a marked change as we find reduction in the exploitation of women as they have been granted equal position as man. The improvement in the status of females can be witnessed in the light of major changes that have been taken place since independence- social, economic, cultural and political life.

In the present scenario, the females are more independent and free from the restrictions of patriarchal world. Whether it is the question of education for professional courses, the gates of opportunity are always opened to them. Today’s women can aspire to attain higher goals as they can avail equal opportunities provided by the Indian constitution which was implemented on 26 January, 1950.

After the independence of India, the Constitution makers and the national leaders not only perceived the rift between the social existence of women and men in the society, but they also paid heed to how this gap can be bridged up. In the Indian constitution, the idea of equality has been enshrined fully and the law-makers take every aspect related to it keeping in mind the situation of women. Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar, the founding father of the Indian Constitution, formulated some articles in the Constitution for the upliftment of women. In this way, present constitution advocates the notion of equality for the females which is a great honour to the women who were once considered the most neglected and suppressed sections of the society. Women were considered outsiders, others and were not supposed to enjoy equality in the society because of the Hindu social order followed by males.

The Women Liberation Movements and the Western model of feminism provided impetus for the rise of Indian females against the age-old injustice and cruelty. They strongly opposed some evil practices in the society-polygamy, child marriage and female infanticide. They are now seeking right to divorce claiming equality in marital rights and are demanding restrictions on the dowry. Consequently, they are supported by certain organisations and legislations to bring changes in their status.

The passing of the Hindu Marriage Act in 1955 marked a change in the lives of the women. It classified Hindu marriages, determined the age for marriage, provided for monogamy and guardianship of the mother, and permitted the dissolution of marriage under particular circumstances. The extension of this law was further witnessed in the Hindu Succession Act of 1956 that provided the females equal right of the daughter in the property of the father. By virtue of the Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, 1956, the females were given right to adopt a son or a daughter. They also got the right to claim maintenance from the husband under certain circumstances.

The position of women was further strengthened by the Hindu Minority and the Guardianship Act 1956. According to this Act, the females were provided for the guardianship of the mother over the daughter throughout her life and, for the first, five years in case of a son. The condition of widows in Indian society improved a lot in comparison to the pre-independence period. At present, they are enjoying an honourable life in their households. It is a fact that the widows are allowed to remarry since a long time, but the Hindu Marriage Act, further, accelerated the pace of right to remarry. Besides, according to the Hindu Adoption and Guardianship Act 1956, the widows can adopt either a son or daughter.

In case of choice of education, the Indian women have all the rights to get education at every level. In order to make their career, they are free to choose any form of education-professional as well as technical. In the Indian constitution, they are provided every opportunity to achieve higher status in the appointments and jobs in the society.

In the preamble to the constitution, chapter of Fundamental Rights (Chapter III) of the constitution, women across the nation have the guarantee of certain privileges bestowed upon them. Further in part IV, there are certain directive to be taken for the emancipation of woman. Article 39-D of the constitution refers to no discrimination on the basis of sexes. It also advocates the rule of “equal pay for equal work” without taking care into consideration the idea of sex. In 1961, through the Dowry Prohibition Act, an effort was made to eradicate the problem of Dowry by introducing certain mechanism of law in that direction. One can witnesses powerful movement all over the country against the women’s toothless Dowry system.

Consequently, as the Dowry Prohibition Amendment Act, 1984 but in the new law, there were some inadequacies. So, in order to remove these pitfalls and to make it strong, there was a further amendment in the same law in 1986. The evil of bride burning and efficacy of protective provision were included in the Criminal Law Amendment Acts, 1983 and 1986. In 1946, the most awaited Hindu Married Women Right to Separate Residence and Maintenance Act came into existence. Towards the second half of the twentieth century, drastic and radical changes were perceived in the field of education. Many social reformers and activists played a significant role in giving impetus to this law.

There are certain reasons for the decline in the female population and sex ratio since 1901. The mortality rate of females has always been higher in comparison to males. The women have come to be at par with their male counterparts as far as the economic field is concerned. A vast majority of female is trying hand in the public services, law, teaching, sports, film industry, but on the other hand, in the rural sector, the women constitute quite a sizeable visible part of the work force.

In political field also, the females are constantly enjoying equality and democratic values in the post-independence era. The women were asked to join the freedom movement at the call of Mahatma Gandhi.  The universal adult Franchise was introduced for the first time on 26 January, 1950, the day the constitution was executed. Since that time, the women are actively participating as M.Ps., M.L.As., Ministers, C.Ms., Governors, Judges, Ambassadors, Prime Minister( Mrs. Indira Gandhi) and even President.( Mrs. Prabhavati)

The year 1975 was observed as the International Women’s Year, and the decade (1975 to 1985) was declared as International Women Decade. March 8^th, at present, is celebrated as the “International Women Day’” every year. So, there seems to be a bit upliftment in the position of women in India as well as in the world. The committee on the status of women (1974) has produced the first comprehensive study on the rights as well as the current position of women in India. The Department of Women and Child Development has proposed a national perspective plan for women (1998-2002). The then Prime Minister, P.V. Narasimha Rao had announced the setting up of two commissions on women. The University Grant Commission has also passed in Women’s Studies as a discipline in the curriculum which has been appreciated by the universities, but these steps carried out by the government for the upliftment of women do not seen enough.

Some more suggestions in the direction of women empowerment are proposed by Maitra Sinha which focuses primarily on women’s education. Females should be motivated and inspired to get higher education. Women should have the zeal for active participation in politics. In Parliament and State Assemblies, seats for the female should be reserved. In brief, it can be emphasized that in 20 states of India 50% seats are reserved for women in the Panchyati Raj institutions, and in the rest of states 33% reservation is there for women. In the 10 states, 50% seats are reserved for women in Urban Local bodies-Municipal Committees, Miunicipal Councils and Municipal Co-operations. According to the Constitution of India, Women should have the right to work as equal partner with men in all walks of life. It will lead to build up a progressive and developed society.

The crimes against women should be stopped in a country where women are put on the pedestal and worshipped as Goddesses. In the planning process, at every levels-social, political and cultural, females should be given priority. It will accelerate the economy and will also mobilise the local skills and resources. In other words, they should be brought into the mainstream of national development not as beneficiaries, but as the contributors and partakers equal to men. Besides, at the lower level, the female workers should be provided with more facilities. The laws regarding their safety should be made stringent.

A feminist is a person who believes in equality of males and females. The issue of feminism, in the beginning, was profoundly influenced by the French Revolution. The ideals of the French Revolution are the same as that of feminism-liberty, equality and justice in every walk of life.

The present book, Feministic Ethos in Pre-Independence and Post-Independence Literature: A Comprehensive Study, by Dinesh Kumar has discussed in details fifteen feminists and divided the book in ten chapters dealing with the Pre-independence and Post-independence writers.

Toru Dutt (4 March 1856-30 August, 1877) is generally regarded as the pioneer among the female writers in Indo-Anglian Literature.  She was well versed in four languages (Bengali, English, French and Sanskrit). She is hailed as Indian John Keats. Dinesh Kumar is absolutely right when he writes that “Being a staunch feminist, her poetry, novels and translated works chiefly describe the themes of loneliness, alienation, patriotism and exploitation of females”. The credit of writing in French as the first Indian woman goes to Toru Dutt as she wrote the first Italian novel as a woman, Le Journal de Mademoiselle d’ Arvers which was published after her death in 1879. Bianca; or The young Spanish Maiden was the first novel written by Toru Dutt in English.

Cornelia Sorabji (15November, 1866-6 July, 1954) was the first Indian female author who studied Law from Oxford University London. (England) She was also the first graduate from Bombay University, first woman to study Law at Oxford University as well as the first woman advocate in India. She was fully dedicated to the causes of females and struggled hard to bring equality among, males and females. After the legal profession was opened to females in India in 1924, Sorabji started practicing in the court of Calcutta. Even in courts, she did not find congenial atmosphere for the females to work with freedom and equality in courts, she started preparing cases for women who were economically weak and the victims of patriarchal domination. India Calling and India Recalled is also a very valuable contribution by Sorabji in the field of feministic writings during the Pre-Independence period.

Her writings, according to Dinesh Kumar, are a powerful rendering of females’ suppression and injustice in the Indian society. Besides, through her works, she supported independence of India, transformation of Western values to India, women rights, traditional Indian culture, self- government for India and last, but not the least, she strongly advocated social reforms in Hindu Laws. She vehemently opposed child marriage, sati system, and female infanticide. On the other hand, she firmly supported the idea of females’ education, the only means to make successful the females’ suffrage movement in India. In brief, Sorabji was a great social reformer, legal expert and a strong advocate of females’ causes.

Karupabhai Satthiananadan, (1862-1894) along with Toru Dutt and Cornelia Sorabji, is known as the firm believer of females’ identity and independence. Her two most illustrious works, Kamala and Saguna are autobiographical in tone which strongly propounds the conception of females’ injustice, suppression and oppression meted out to the women of India. The impact of Christianity can be witnessed on her work, Saguna which is a powerful expression of how the Indian women were living a miserable life full of hardships, predicaments and imbroglio. The Story of Conversion by her is also a landmark achievement in shaping the role of females during the Pre-Independence time period.

In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the ideals of French Revolution-equality, liberty and justice were the cornerstone of the social as well as political movement. No doubt, these ideals profoundly influenced the Anglo-Indian writers and their literary writings- novel, drama and poetry. The Indian feminists were against the suppression, exploitation, oppression and subjugation of the native people, including women.

The three representative feminists of the nineteenth and twentieth century selected by Dinesh Kumar in this book are Karupabhai Satthianandan, Cornelia Sorabji and Sarojini Naidu. Since the ancient times, especially after post-Vedic period in Indian society, Indian culture, Indian traditions, Indian laws and customary rules are against the liberty and freedom of women due to patriarchal domination in the society. All these three representative writers continued the tradition of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Jyotiba Phule, Savitribai Phule and Fatima Sheikh. They strongly opposed the prevalent evils in society.

Through their writings, according to Dinesh Kumar, they opined “unfair male practices like concubine age, polygamy, foot binding, Sati and visual enslavement become the focal points of women resistance”. Sarojini Naidu never called herself as feminist in Western terms, but continued to spread awareness against exploitation, subjugation and oppression of women in the pre-independence era as well as post- independence period. She was of the opinion that women were exploited in all walks of life from ‘womb to tomb’ on all levels-social, economic, education, cultural and political. She advocated widow remarriage, women’s education and opposed child marriage, polygamy and social injustice.

Mrs. Indira Gandhi,( 9 November, 1917 – 31 October, 1984) the first female Prime Minister of India, was a spokesman for female rights in a male-dominated society. She never advocated the dominant role of men because she was a women. She always favoured the idea that the problems faced by women should be eliminated which was the root cause their deplorable situation in a typical male-centred society. But, the policies and decisions adopted by her played a significant role in the process of nation building. Most of the people do not find Mrs. Indira Gandhi as a feminist as is evident through her claim that she was not a feminist. Instead of a feminism, she confessed to a biform, neither a woman nor a man, but a human being.

In her marriage life also, she was in conflict in with her in laws and their patriarchal attitude. As a female Prime Minister also, Mrs. Indira Gandhi fought against the evils associated with females- child marriage, female infanticide, dowry system and other women related issues and problems regarding equal opportunities for women. She tried to eradicate these age-old problems that hindered that the growth of females as they were not considered at par with men in the chauvinistic male world. Moreover, her speeches at public places and parliamentary debates and international plateformsare full of reformistic zeal for the females.

As the female Prime minister of India, she did not hesitate to send army for the liberation of Bangladesh in 1971. It was due to her strong and firm political will and unflinching support by the then Defence Minister of India, Sh. Jagjivan Ram-the tallest leader of the Indian scheduled castes and strong military operation about 90,000 Pakistani soldiers and officers surrendered before the army. Atal Bihari Vajpayee (the leader of the Jansangh Party, predecessor of the Bhartiya Janta Party) and later on, Prime Minister of India, very aptly called her “Durga-the Goddess of the Hindus”.  She is the real role model and icon for women throughout the whole world.

Annie Besant (1 October, 1847 – 20 September, 1933 ) was a British theosophist, women right activist, educationist, journalist and philanthropist. Although born in England, she also worked for the welfare of women all around the world, especially India. She was a British social reformer who actively participated for women’s equality in all spheres in Indian nationalism. She visited India for the first time in 1893, and later on, settled here. She enthusiastically participated in Indian National Movement, and also became the member of Indian Congress Committee.

Regarded as a champion of human freedom, especially of women liberation, Besant strongly favoured the ideals of equality, freedom and liberty in the lives of females. She was a dynamic force in Indian politics and rendered valuable service to the cause of national regeneration in India both from political and cultural points of view. She worked with zeal and energy to make the idea of Home Rule popular in large parts of India. She founded the Home Rule League in 1916 and edited two journals-‘The New India’, and ‘The Commonweal’. She remarked in 1917 that the strength of the Home Rule movement was rendered ten-fold greater by the adhesion to it of a large number of women who brought to it uncalculating heroism, endurance, self-sacrifice of the feminine nature. She, further, emphasised that League’s best recruits and recruiters were amongst the women of India, and the women of Madras boast of that they marched in procession when the men were stopped and that their prayers in the temple set the interned captive free.

Although Swaranakumari Devi, the younger sister of Rabindranath Tagore, was not popular like him, but her contribution as a feminist cannot be underestimated and ignored. At that time, she was among the few Indian graduate women in India. She was the first women novelist in Bengali language. She was very well versed in different languages-Persian, French, Sanskrit and English. She actively participated in the social sphere as an active member of social reformers’ organisations and Nationalistic politics. Besides, she formed an organisation, Sakhi, for the upliftment of widows and destitute women in the society. She is among the unsung heroes in the history of Indian feminists whose works favour the progressive outlook by rejecting the traditional Indian ideology of Hindu patriarchy.

Her short story, Mutiny, explores the breaking of the patriarchal ideology by not only rejecting British Imperialism, but also by refusing to jump into the pyre. The burning issue related to the females-the sati system is the centre of discussion in her works. An Unfinished Song is imbued with the feministic outlook. It is a translated work that speaks volumes of her idea as a staunch feminist. The Fatal Garland is also an equally famous and significant work that celebrates females’ causes.  Like Sarojini Naidu and Toru Dutt, she was also a Pioneer in the field of feminist writings. She communicated her own experiences vividly as a woman in her writings

The main works of Sarojini Naidu, (13 February, 1879 – 2 March, 1949) according to Dinesh Kumar, are the three collection of the poems including The Golden Threshold (1905), The Bird of Time (1912), and The Broken Wing. (1917) From this point, of view, as a feminist writer, Sarojini Naidu shines like a star in the galaxy of female writers, Annie Besant, Mrs. Indira Gandhi and others. Besides, some male feminists also advocated women empowerment. The feminists include Thanthai Periyar-the greatest scholar of the twentieth century, socialist, revolutionary and the fifteen women members of the Constituent Assembly of India pleaded in a forceful manner for the women rights to uplift them-socially, economically and politically.

There is no doubt in denying the fact that Sarojini Naidu was also one of the leading and front-rank Pre-Independence authors who worked for the emancipation of females in India. She has been regarded as the ‘nightingale of India’ whose poetry is an authentic manifestation of pains, agonies, predicaments and problems of the Indian women. Besides given the title of Indian nightingale, Sarojini Naidu’s works are an honest and faithful reflection of mental agony, lack of freedom and inequality in females’ life. In collaboration with Annie Besant, she helped in the formation of Women’s Indian Association in 1917. She also started a magazine to portray the female hardships and problems on international level. She was the force behind the inspiration of Indian Renaissance Movement having a sole aim of improving the lot of Indian women. She is generally called as a woman’s rights activist who enthusiastically supported the causes of women in India. In nutshell, her contribution as a feminist as well as an Indian freedom fighter cannot be overlooked and neglected.

Additionally, Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar, (14 April, 1891 – 6 December, 1956) the father of Indian Constitution, played a significant and vital role for the emancipation of females during the Pre-Independence as well as in the Post-Independence period. It is because of his efforts as the Chairman of the Draft Committee of the Constitution that preamble to the constitution, fundamental rights, some of the provisions of the directive principles of State Policy of the Constitution advocate equality between men and women. He advocates, “one voter, one vote, and one value”, whether male or female.  In his views on equality between men and women, he worked tirelessly to empower women in Indian society.

Rasipuram Krishnaswami Iyer Narayanaswami (10 October, 1906 – 13 May, 2001) popularly known as R.K. Narayan who, according to Dinesh Kumar, is generally considered as the forerunner in the field of Indian fiction, before and after independence in the early English literature. He forms “a trinity along with Mulk Raj Anand and Raja Rao”, says Dinesh Kumar. This Trinity has witnessed Pre-Independence and Post-Independence period. R.K. Narayan contributes as a fictional as well as non-fictional author by writing novels, essays and short stories. The main plot of his writings revolves around an imaginary South Indian society, myth and folklore.

Dinesh Kumar very rightly asserts that R.K. Narayan has depicted the true and realistic picture of South Indian women-their predicaments, miseries, oppression, suppression, exploitation and subjugation in the patriarchal and male-dominated society. R.K. Narayan, in his writing, explores the miserable plight, pathetic situation and deplorable position of women due to age-old tradition of enslavement of women confined within the four walls of the houses. Dinesh Kumar has rightly stated that the women were treated as puppets, inferior, subordinate, marginalised, suppressed, discriminated and victims of social traditions. R.K. Narayan started a movement for women liberation through his writing, especially The Bachelor of Art to The Painter of Sign. His views regarding the emancipation of women were within Indian norms and Western norms which a number of scholars and writers advocate due to Western influences.

According to Dinesh Kumar, in his fictional works, we find the emergence of two types of female characters-the first group forms old and traditional characters who are highly conservative and seemingly modern girls and women who are educated, awakened and enlightened; the second group favours emancipation of women from the shackles of their husbands and advocates participation from micro level to macro level in the society. R.K. Narayan’s The Dark Room illustrates an openly rebellious attitude against the forced loyalty and dedication of women to their husbands, though in The Guide, he explores those husbands who change from “good husbands” to “deranged husbands”.

Moreover, the author has painted the traditional roles of women prevalent in the Indian society. There is nothing new when he depicts women as mothers, sisters, daughters, daughter-in-laws, grandmothers, and mother-in-laws, but his recurrent themes revolve around women.  Dinesh Kumar has aptly remarked that the role of women as wife is prominent one.

Seen from the Indian society’s point of view, the role played by women as a wife is not a new. It is because since Pre-Vedas and Post-Vedas time period, women have been playing most important role as a wife. She runs the family and takes care of all members of her family. She gives birth to children and look after the whole family.

R.K. Narayan uses very simple language, the language of common man. But, his critics including Shashi Deshpande, Shashi Tharoor, William Walsh and Anita Desai allege that his language was that of a ‘pedestarian and naïve’. A close reading of his language reflects his idea of women emancipation and freedom equivalent to men.  Dinesh Kumar has very aptly summarized his views about the liberation of females in the chapter “Feministic Perspectives in R.K. Narayan’s Fiction”.

Manju Kapur (1st January, 1948- till date) is one of the leading and significant novelists in Indian writing in English. She is a contemporary novelist who raises the issues pertaining to the females- their problems, predicaments, sufferings and miseries. Her first novel, Difficult Daughter won her the most coveted Commonwealth Writers Prize for literature in Europe and South Asia. In the present chapter of the book, “Protest for Female Identity in Manju Kapur’s Difficult Daughters”, Dinesh Kumar has rightly pointed out that she is dedicated to the causes of women in her fictional works. Being a fiction writer of the present time, Manju Kapur has dealt with the contemporary issues in her works.

Her novels are faithful reflection of existence and survival of females in the Middle-class society in India. A close scrutiny of her fictional world highlights the fact that most of her works are dominated by the female characters, whereas the male characters are marginalised. Since there is emphasis on women, male characters appear to be insignificant.

In her works, the image of a new woman can be seen emerging as 1960s witnessed the evolution of feminism. This is the main reason why the females in her works are entirely different from the traditional counterparts. The idea of the new women propounded by her is the view of a woman who is confident, conscious and aggressive though sometimes she may be cheated or seduced emotionally. Dinesh Kumar agrees with Manju Kapur on the idea that “for acquiring a new identity she is seen dealing with the world around her on her own terms”.

Manju Kapur’s constant endeavour in her fictional world is to display an important shift in the position and status of the women who are autonomous. She projects them as independent and not dependent on their fathers, husbands and sons or any other male counterparts. Manju Kapur depicts her female characters by taking into consideration different aspects of a woman’s life, and portrays a variety of women. It brings out the different ways the women are subjected to male hegemony.

In every novel in general, and Difficult Daughters in particular, the author attempts to present the conviction of liberating women through the self-realisation, quest for self-identity and self-respect. In the present chapter,“ Protest for Female Identity in Manju Kapur’s Difficult Daughters”, she presents Virmati as the epitome of sheer courage and determination while fighting for battles for independence. She has portrayed Virmati as going through various experiences- quest for independence, quest for a self-expression and to find an identity of her own.

Manju Kapur has taken into consideration the factor of independence which is aspired to and obtained by independence yearned after by a woman. The novel Difficult Daughters can be hailed as an autobiographical account of the author herself, and the multiple frustrations faced by the chief protagonist, Virmati are undoubtedly the author’s herself. The setting of the novel is against the backdrop of the partition in the cities of Amritsar and Lahore. The author has been succeeded in delineating a society where dignity is more important than grief and joy of the family members.

Through the exploration of Virmati’s character, the author has tried to depict the struggle for independence on the macro level. The orthodoxy that is so deep rooted in the Indian families is exposed by the writer through the depiction of Shakuntala and Virmati. Shakuntala has been delineated as a freedom fighter who takes part in the political independence movement, where as Kasthuri is traditional and confined to patriarchy who considers marriage as the duty of every girl rather than studies.

Besides that, Manju Kapur does not only depict the vulnerable situation of women in Indian society, but she also portrays how the females are kept ignorant in all the matters and emancipation. In her fictional world, Kapur gives vent to the gender discrimination which is perceived in education and other activities of life. Through the novel, Difficult Daughters, the author has expressed how patriarchy creates havoc in the lives of female by denying proper education.

Dinesh Kumar very rightly opines that Manju Kapur’s heroines reveal the voice of protest for their existence or emergence. They have the quest for their identity and self-fulfillment. All her works are evidences of how women first confrontation with her body seems a significant point of deviation for her. The females in her fiction often feel frustration and alienation as the tradition is deeply rooted in India and is organised around gender discrimination which provides more space for dominance.

In almost all of her works, Manju Kapur highlights how women are grieving of proper education in the name of patriarchy or orthodoxy in India. She also raises the germinal issue of women in very broad manner. At the same time, she also delineates the sick and pathetic reality of Indian women in her fictional world and shows how the double standards of patriarchy play a vital role in the educational system.

In this way, the foregoing discussion leads to the tentative conclusion that all women do not necessarily desire for equality with men, but they want to be seen as a subject and in terms of difference, subjectivity has a different meaning for each. A closed and minute study of her works, according to Dinesh Kumar, reveals that “women do not have the strength in themselves, but the problem is that they are taught in the web of patriarchal system and do not realise their potential”. They require self-realisation, but this process varies in each woman’s case as it is different in different female characters as delineated by Manju Kapur in her novel, Difficult Daughters.

In the history of Indian writing in English, Anita Desai (24 June 1937- till date) has added new dimensions to the achievements of Indian women writers in English fiction. In Ruth Prawar Jhabvala’s works, the social background is rather more important than the characters who enact the various comedies, ,tragic-comedies and farces; in Kamala Markandaya’s fictional world,  the accent is as much on the principal characters as on the diverse backgrounds-economic, political, cultural and social; but in Anita Desai’s novels, the inner climate of sensibility that lours or clears or rumbles like thunder or suddenly blazes forth like lightning, is more compelling than the outer whether, the physical geography or the visible action.

Anita Desai is a novelist, short story writer and author of children’s books. According to Dinesh Kumar, the approach of Anita Desai is quite contrary to R.K. Narayan and Mulk Raj Anand. These writers deal with social and economic issues faced by the individuals in the society. On the contrary, Anita Desai is interested in psycho-spiritual and psycho-analytical study of the inner recesses of her females’ protagonists. Dinesh Kumar has rightly summarised her central concerns as he writes that she deals with “existential state of frustration, disappointment, isolation, sense of loss and meaninglessness”.

In other words, her writings deal with the emotional aspects of human life in transitional society. She reveals her own frustration in her writings because her first novel, Cry, The Peacock was written by her very secretly. She writes “I continue to write almost secret without anyone observing me at work at my desk so as not to create and open conflict.” The despair and disappointment that is perceived through the above lines is the spirit and crux of her novels. It was because she did not want a conflict with her husband and her in laws.

She also displays vividly the clash between Eastern and Western cultures. She was deeply influenced by the tragedies of the partition of India (1947) and the Bhopal Gas Disaster. (1984) She writes from the females’ point of view. In Desai’s works, one perceives a shift from women’s centred society to male-centred world. In her novel, In Custody, we find a powerful illustration of the politics of language in postcolonial era. In brief, Anita Desai depicts the conflict in the lives of most of Middle-class women who long for freedom while living in a traditional family environment. Her mind is pre-occupied with psychological approach and does not deal with the main issues of social, economic and political importance faced by common people, especially working class women in India.

Her first novel, Cry, the Peacock was published in 1963. She is persistently engaged in fiction writing. Dinesh Kumar rightly inked that “among the major thematic issues of her works include feminine sensibility, quest for identity, search for meaning in a meaningless world, existentialism and injustice, exploitation and suppression of females’ freedom”. She has been awarded by the number of National International institutions, but the most prestigious award-Padama Bhushan was conferred upon her in 2014. Her novel, In Custody has been dramatized into a film. Like Anita Desai, her daughter, Kiran Desai settled in America, is a young and budding writer.

Desai’s forte, in other words, is the exploration of feminine sensibility- the particular kind of modern Indian females’ sensibility that is ill, and is among the barbarians and the philistines, the anarchist and the amoralists. Since her pre-occupation is with the inner world of female sensibility rather than the outer world of action, she has tried to forge a style supple and suggestive enough to convey the fever and fretfulness of stream of consciousness of her principal female characters.

The intolerable grapple with thoughts, feelings and emotion is necessarily reflected in the language, syntax and imagery, yet the readers’ first impression on reading Anita Desai’s novels may very well be that the contortions are too many, and are often the result of excessive cerebration on the author’s part and not always determined by the movements in the consciousness of the characters.

Desai’s debut novel, Cry, the Peacock is a powerful delineation of panoramic picture of highly sensitive, disturbed and childless neurotic woman, Maya, who has gone deep into the feminine psyche-from childhood to youth and untimely death. In this work, the novelist has portrayed Maya as a tragic and sensitive woman who finds it difficult to adjust in the present mechanical and urbanised set-up.

Through Maya, Desai has artistically presented the perfect relationship with her husband. In the present work, she explores evidences of her awareness of different problems and hardships faced by her women characters which she has tried to tackle from psychic point of view.

Anita Desai has, thus, in the words of Dinesh Kumar, “expressed in her books the sufferings and dilemma of hyper-sensitive females who are prey to the traditional modes of existence without a strong terra firma, which makes them intensely conscious of their lack of identity”. Their protest mostly turns into frustration, for as an Indian girl, a woman is brought to be possible meek and obedient. With this kind of orthodox background, she tries to depict the oppressive and unfeeling conjugal bond. She deals with the unhappy situations of women in the society with their search for identity and sense of belongingness. She has handled the issues of violence against women artistically and veraciously. In brief, as Dinesh Kumar propounds, Anita Desai’s heroines are always in search of their identity in “a meaningless and existential world”.

Shashi Deshpande (1938-till date) is a shining star in the galaxy of women feminists including Anita Desai, Shobe De, Bhabbani Bhattacharya, Arundhati Roy, Nayantara Sahgal, Kamala Markandaya, Kamala Das and many more. According to Dinesh Kumar, Deshpande is a successful female novelist and her success lies in her realistic portrayal of life-like characters in her literary works. In her fictional world, Deshpande deals with “Gross Gender Discrimination’ ,and Inequality prevalent in patriarchal set-up in the society” writes Dinesh Kumar, very aptly.

Dinesh Kumar has also listed the important works written by Shashi Deshpande. The main issues in her fictional works emerge related to gender including suppression, oppression and subjugation of female characters. Dinesh Kumar is absolutely right when he writes that Shashi Deshpande’s works focus on quest for identity in patriarchal world. The main crisis in Indian society is that it is highly traditional in practice and modern in thinking, especially Middle class living in urban areas. In other words, Shashi Deshpande is in the category of those novelists who deal with Middle-class Indian urban women.

A close analysis of Shashi Deshpande’s works reflects the idea of her deep psycho-spiritual association of deplorable situation of Indian females. Her female protagonists have been delineated in the light of their hopes, fears, frustration and aspirations. They are very much conscious of their merits and demerits, but feel helpless by the opposition and pressures from environment dominated by the patriarchal mindset. In the context of Indian society, Deshpande explores the plights and subsequent degradation.

The female characters portrayed by the author are the sufferers of the prevalent’ Gross Gender-Discrimination’. They suffer because of the inequalities and injustice meted out to them-social, political and economic. Although they fight against the oppressive and unequal nature of social norms and rules, but their capability and existence are suppressed. They also raise their voice against their subordinate status destined to them by the society.

Roots and Shadow by Deshpande is a powerful illustration of feministic concerns that depicts life history of Indu, a middle-class young girl. Shashi Deshpande projects feminist perspectives through this work. Indu is brought up in an orthodox Brahmin family. She meets with discrimination, disillusionment and suffers a silent sexual humiliation. She does not feel any guilt in her extramarital relationship with Naren. Her predicaments are representative of predicaments of contemporary Indian women where the new socio-economic forces have shaken old cultural modes. The way Indu, an intelligent and sensitive lady, who was very choosy in her affections, made by the author to resolve her doubts and uncertainties is very alarming.

Shashi Deshpande is meticulously conscious of the women’s sufferings in a male-centred world. The society and environment presented in The Dark Holds no Terror is, no doubt, is a transitional one where at least economically independent women could have choices in life. That Long Silence is a powerful dramatisation of the suffering and deprivation of a female’s life. It deals with much larger issue-“the long silence of women”. In the present work, the writer expresses certain characters as stereotyped representative of traditional womanhood. It is also a critique of the myth perpetrated and practiced in the context of feminists, but the main force of the book lies in its frank and bold analysis of the harsh reality about the Indian women through the character of Jaya.

Although Shashi Deshpande, inspired by the Western feminism, does not advocate freedom in Western sense, but in conformity with the society they are living in without any drift. She does not accept the theory that ‘females are sufferers’. Deshpande never focuses on documenting female resistance to patriarchal ideologies, but her focus is on the strategies of re-adjustment for a female protagonist in order to forge their own identity.

There is no doubt in denying the fact that Shashi Deshpande’s  works express the real anguish and conflict of modern educated Middle-class women caught between patriarchy and tradition on the one hand, and self-expression and independence on the other. They feel themselves lost, confused and explore ways to fulfill themselves as a human being. In her works, one finds an honest portrayal of her fears, suffering, disappointment and frustrations besides revealing the women struggle to secure self-respect and self-identity.

She also lays bare the multiple levels of oppression, including sexual oppression that is primary concern for the women which makes her as a feminist writer in true sense of words. Her novels are essentially reflective of an inviolable situation of the great artists. Her excellence as a female author lies in her sounding originality and realistic depiction of the contemporary Indian women’s situation. In her works, she deals with the realistic portrayal of females. Her main focus as a feminist lies in her depiction of females belonging to middle-class society. Her books convey a pragmatic solution for the alienated and isolated females, and their quest for identity ends with a note of affirmation.

The central idea emerging out of Deshpande’s works is that women should be considered with equality, dignity and honour. As a feminist, she advocates that women should be treated as human beings-neither superior nor inferior. This is the ideal principle of her feministic attitude. They are not weak creatures, rather full of potential, strength and zeal which they have proved themselves in the Olympics when Indian young girls brought medals in past and present, and even in the Para Olympic. (2021) They are doing well in all walks of life.

Kamala Das (31st March, 1934-31st March, 2009) is a well-known name in English literature in the Post-Independence era. Kamala Das started her career as a poet writing under the name of Madhavi Kutty.  She was a renowned bilingual author and wrote in her mother tongue, Malayalam, as well as in English.

She is the first and foremost Indian women writer who wrote about females’ sexual desire experienced by an Indian woman. She searches her identity through poetry which has been penned by Dinesh Kumar in the title of the chapter ‘Quest for Identity in Kamala Das’s Poetry’. She is profoundly influenced by her mother who was a famous poet. As a poet, Kamala Das is a Rebel who openly supports the liberation of women from the bondage of slavery of men.

According to Dinesh Kumar, poetry is a powerful political expression that has been used by Kamala Das in her poetic works. In her works, she deals with women’s quest for freedom, sexual and domestic relationship, and examines the paradoxes of a married life. She is a bilingual poet who wrote in English as well as in her native language, Malayalam. She has openly revolted against the conventional outlook of society-the rebellion is against patriarchal society and injustice to women. She is against norms and customs which have driven the women in the darkness since centuries, and it still continues.

In her poetry, Kamala Das faithfully reflects her indignation against the male-world when she says that a woman is a prey to male-dominated world. In patriarchal domination, females are injured, tortured and psychologically harassed. She strongly advocates sexual freedom for the emancipation and liberation of women. Her poetry is a reflection of her own experiences which are bitter and full of mental agony.

Born in Punnayurkulam, India as Kamala Surayya, she was better known in her home state of Kerala for her short stories and her autobiography, and in the rest of the country, for her English poetry. Her explosive autobiography, My Story, written in Malayalam, (her mother tongue and native tongue of Kerla) gained her both fame and notoriety. Later, it was translated into English.

It is a significant fact that her parents had a literary background, she naturally inherited a disposition towards writing. Married at the age of 15 to a bank officer, Madhav Das, who encouraged her passion for writing, she found herself writing in two languages-English and Malayalam.

Kamala Das was fortunate to be located in the city of Calcutta, which in the 1960s afforded good opportunities for creative talent. She began to publish her work in cult anthologies, along with a budding generation of Indian English poets. She attended literary events in Germany, Jamaica, London and Canada, where she was invited to read her poetry. She also held literary positions in her state of Kerala and for a national daily. In 2009, The Times called her the “mother of modern English poetry.”

Among her many notable achievements are the Pen Asian Poetry Prize in 1963 and a nomination for the Nobel Prize in 1984. She also became a syndicated columnist expressing her views on women, children, and politics.  Kamala lived by her own terms all of her life, which is clearly visible in her writings. The first published book of collected poems by Kamala Das, Summer in Calcutta (1965) featured the ups and downs of romantic love. She opted to publish all her six volumes of poetry in English — though she did complain, “Poetry does not sell in this country” -referring to India.

As opined by Dinesh Kumar, Kamala Das’s poetic work could be classified under the genre of confessional poetry-not a common style for Indian poets, least of all women. She was the pioneer in this respect and also for using English to pen her verse. Her English poetry has been compared to that of Anne Saxton and won her both recognition and literary awards during her lifetime.

The poems cast a critical eye on Indian society, with its strong patriarchy and notions about how a woman should conduct herself.  Interestingly, while her poetry is replete with feminist yearnings, there is a strong sense of spirituality running through them. Kamala’s autobiography is penned so poignantly that any Indian woman might identify with the trials, tribulations, and burden of expectations from a society steeped in patriarchy. She was certainly an iconoclast and managed to carve a niche for herself with the sheer honesty of her writings. The publishing of her autobiography, My Story, was originally in Malayalam called Ente Katha, brought her both publicity and criticism for its honesty about sexuality. Kamala Das did say later that she had adopted fictional elements in her story, but that did not prevent her from being censured for doing a striptease. She replied in characteristic style saying that after she stripped off her skin and crushed her bones, people would perhaps be able to see “my homeless orphan, intensely beautiful soul, deep within the bone…”

Arundhati Roy (Born in 1961-present) is a famous novelist, social activist and a critic of political leadership, anti-people policies and programmes. As a social scientist and columnist, she is always on the side of aggrieved, suppressed and oppressed people, especially the subaltern classes. She has participated in a number of movements-environment movement, issues related to Narmada Dam Project, the CAA, Kashmir issues, and most recent is Kisaan Andolan against Three Agricultural Laws, especially repealing the three anti-kisan Agriculture Laws and enactment of a law to make Minimum Support Price (MSP) as mandatory. In brief, she is really the author of citizenship.

Commenting on Arundhati Roy’s works, Dinesh Kumar, finds her as one of the most Post-Independence Indian author writing in English in the company of Anita Desai, Kamala Markandaya and Kiran Desai who deals with the contemporary issues in her works. She was awarded the most coveted Booker Prize for her debut novel, The God of Small Things. This is the bestselling novel by an Indian author which is vibrant with a rebellious spirit and seeks to break away from the conventional paradigms in its selection of a challenging theme and narrative mode.

This novel is also a powerful delineation in the form of a critique of social structure of the Indian society presented through the culture of Kerla. Besides analysing citizenship, rights and duties, she reflects the conflict between the ‘touchables’ and ‘untouchables’that results in issues related to untouchables and atrocities against them. The untouchables are deprived of rights and privileges even in the first quarter of the present century. The untouchability is based on the Varna System vehemently advocated by Manu. Moreover, the various codes described in The Manusmriti are violent, exploitative, oppressive and extremely fatal and dangerous not only for the “untouchables”, but also for the social unity and harmony. The suppression of the “untouchables” is a hindrance in building of modern Indian society as well as united and strong India.

This system has destroyed humanity and particularly, ‘untouchables’ are subjugated, oppressed, exploited and suppressed. According to Dinesh Kumar, they have been deprived of the privileges enshrined in the Constitution of India. They face discrimination in all spheres of life including in the institutes of higher learning. In brief, it is the negation of citizenship rights and duties. The social revolution as happened in the European countries, did not happen in India. Consequently, the downtrodden were suppressed and exploited.

According to census 2011, there are about 4.2 crore families belonging to the Dalit class. Dalit as a class is the victim of discrimination, poverty, malnutrition and hunger. The average age of a Dalit woman is 15 years less than that of a non-Dalit woman. Though the above views are related to the present century, but the condition of women, particularly Dalit women, in the twentieth century was even worst.

It is against this background and light that the readers can understand the chapter on Arundhati Roy written by Dinesh Kumar. It is through the characters of the novel that the Arundhati Roy depicts the condition of society, and the conflict between ‘touchable’ and ‘untouchables’. The God of Small Things deals with the relationship between ‘touchables’ and ‘untouchables’. It was the relationship between a divorced ‘touchable’, Ammu with the ‘untouchable’, Velutha. As it happens even today, Velutha was arrested on the charge of rape. He was tortured mercilessly-physically and mentally, and died in custody. In other words, the fake charge is of rape results into custodial death of an untouchable even if he has romantic relation with a touchable woman. Through this romantic love story, Roy deals with the concepts of citizenship and identity in the democratic progress of the country, nation building and national unity.

One of the most glaring instances that the novelist has delineated is the ambiguous stand adopted by these female characters. In the book, the relationship between Ammu and Velutha is seen from a different perspective by the females in comparison to Chacko’s indulgence with a low caste woman. They express a little sympathy for Ammu’s lonely life, her tragic marital circumstances and her anxiety about her children. On the other hand, their casteist hostility finds double force in Ammu-Velutha liaison. It breaks into expression of moral outrage, on the other hand, Chacko’s sexual indulgence with low-caste women is overlooked as ‘men’s needs’. Ammu’s relationship with Velutha became an unpardonable offence against family reputation and status.

According to Dinesh Kumar’s view point, the women in Arundhati Roy’s books are doubly marginalized: first as women; and second as Dalits. Thus, one comes across that the novelist puts under focus the deliberately constructed agencies of cruelty that works against women’s interest. In this, all are involved-the so-called progressive politicians, the family members, the police and other agencies of the states.

In the orthodox Indian society, such forces flourish and find encouragement in maintaining their hold and control over the weaker sections of society. Families both shape and are shaped by factors that are overtly of political significance. Dinesh Kumar aptly says that in nutshell, we come across that their structures play a dominating role in impoverishing and disadvantaging women; and their structures are shaped at least in part, by constraints imposed by laws, workplaces, and the ways that children are educated.

In The God of Small Things, the chief issue raised by the author is the family and social mechanism evolved over centuries in the conventional Indian society. The Indian society suppresses and oppresses females mentally as well as physically. They are not treated independent as a human being. The tragic tale of Ammu, mother of Rahel and Estha who suffers without complain, yet simmer inside in her a deep discontent, from the pivotal of the book.

The God of Small Things is also a painful depiction of the traditional joint families in India which are neatly structured. In these families, some women assume dominant role with great authorities over other who belong to lower status, and therefore, enjoy certain power. The complex structure is deeply embedded and has given rise to countless tales of personal tragedy of equally placed women. The unequal position in the social set-up is the root cause of great misery, suffering and hardship in their lives which compel them to accept the oppressive system in a spirit of religious submissiveness and personal renunciation.

There is a terrifying sordid side to this concept, and Arundhati Roy’s work, The God of Small Things is a powerful protest against this. Like the untouchable being surrounded from all sides and subjected to all kind of indignities in order to deprive them of chance of self-enhancement. Family as a subversive site is exemplified in the typically structured roles and behaviour of the females in mates. In the society, such forces flourish and find their hold and control over the weaker sections of society, both shape and are shaped by factors that are clearly of political significance.

In this way, Roy conveys a powerful message that social structures are so formed as to sanctify women’s victimization. Her depiction of the miserable plight of women reflects the pitiful and miserable situation of females in the middle-class families in the post-independence era. In this work critiques in unmistakable terms the perpetuation of these exploitative forces.

Summarising the views of Dinesh Kumar, I can safely and rightly aver that the present book is also a powerful castigation of the struggle for rights including liberty, equality, and justice. Arundhati Roy highlights how the rights, liberty and equality are suppressed by the colonialism, postcolonialism, religious, casteist and patriarchal environment. Roy treats Dalits as a subaltern class. A Dalit may change his or her religion, but caste remains intact even after death at burial place.

Besides, The God of Small Things highlights how the Dalits are negated on their rights, and politicians negate their duties. In brief, the rights in the Constitution of India have not been implemented properly for the protection and progress of Dalits in India.

The Post-Independence female writers write fiction, novel or poetry in which they project the new face of a woman-a woman totally classified by the role assigned to her in the patriarchal system of society. The female writers motivate the new women to demand and struggle for her place and position in all walks of life. The new women, while having deep understanding, knows that once a women crosses the four walls of the house, meets with suffering, hardship, blackmailing, sexual harassment  anti-woman social norms and hostility from family members to the place of working.

The new Indian women have familiarity with Western as well as Eastern values of family. They find themselves torn between a crisis between modernity versus tradition, and Western versus Eastern concept of values. It is this background of changing character of society full of contradictions and intellectual crisis in the mind of modern women, Kamala Markandaya “occupies the central place among the Indian writers”, says Dinesh Kumar in this context.

According to Dinesh Kumar, Kamala Markandaya’s works are based on the rural life. She deals with two types of characters in her fiction-conventional and unconventional. Her rural women are weak, fragile, docile and subordinate to their co-partners. The unconventional characters of her writings are rebellious and want to challenge traditional hierarchical norms and values of society imposed on women to subjugate, oppress, suppress and exploit them sexually. The new unconventional emerging women want to break the norms violently to create a space for them in every sphere of life. In other words, women are equal to men, therefore, the women are raising their voice to claim 50% share from land to sky so that they can have their own image and identity.

Kamala Markandaya is very bold writer and is also a victim of conservative environment of orthodox society. Some readers can label her works as immoral, but she is strong and bold who has inspired the new generation of Indian writers. All the female readers in general and urban women in particular, are fascinated by her writings as inked by Dinesh Kumar while discussing about fiction and non-fiction of Kamala Markandaya.

The central figure, Rukmani, in the novel Nectar in a Sieve, has been delineated as a life-like character who suffers from discrimination from womg to tomb. She is absolutely correct in exposing the “sonstroke” society because in such a society, no body prefers a female child which is very unfortunate.  Rukmani will have true identity when she will give birth to a male child, preferably the first male child.

If in Nectar in a Sieve, the writer explores the rural life of a woman, in her work, Some Inner Fury, she delineates the urban women the novel. The novel, Some Inner Fury has been written in the background of the Quit India Movement. (1942) Women faced oppression during pre- colonial as well as Postcolonial or Post-Independence era. The writings of Kamala Markandaya expose subordination, sexual violence against women, silent oppression and social norms imposed by patriarchal system of family on the one hand, and rebellious attitude longing for freedom and independence in every sphere of life on the other. The exploitation of the women still continues despite the rebellious voice raised by the modern women.

In her another novel, Possession, Kamala Markandaya, writes Dinesh Kumar, “there are five fundamental points on the basis of which Caroline’s characters is inferior to men-biological, experience, discourse, on unconsciousness and socio-economic conditions.” Caroline’s character is against some feminine traits-humanity, sweetness, subservient and modesty, and she emerges as a violent character.

In her book, A Silence of Desire, she portrays Sarojini as beautiful, calm and submissive on the one hand, and rebellious on the other hand, against male authority and confronts males to be independent. In brief, Markandaya challenges the established norms in a male chauvinistic world.

What I feel is that this whole thrust of feminist centres around urban women, and most of them had not bothered about the suffering of working-class in the villages. About 98% agriculture women are landless, working on the lands of others and face a number of difficulties including exploitation, inequality, oppression, sexual harassment and lack of proper facilities.

All the female characters portrayed by all the feminists discussed above deal with emancipation of women from patriarchal system of society. The Constitutional provisions, Laws, decisions by Supreme Court and High Courts, direction issued by Women Right Commission and other organisations are a great help to create an environment of change, but the real change will come if there is change of mind-set. The Civil Society can play a dominant and forceful role in direction of the feminisation.

The book written by Dinesh Kumar is itself a masterpiece of his creative writing. I hope it will be very useful for the feminist writers, students, researchers, media persons and teachers of English language and literature. I hope young writers will follow his footprints. He is an emerging and popular face in National and international seminars, workshops, and E-conferences as a resource person. His works have been highly appreciated in India as well as abroad.

I shall advise him to write on contribution of Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar on the emancipation of women and Dalit literature in India in future. I am really proud of his achievements. I wish him happy, healthy and honourable life in future.

(The author, a senior scholar of sociology and political science, is a former principal of Dyal Singh College, Haryana)